Volume 3, No. 5 May 2024 (574-585)
p-ISSN 2980-4868 |
e-ISSN 2980-4841
https://ajesh.ph/index.php/gp
Analysis of Odd-Even Policies
in Overcoming Congestion and Air Pollution, Studies in Jakarta and Beijing
Ratih Purnamasari1*, Arthur Josias Simon
Runturambi2
1,2Universitas
Indonesia, Depok, DKI Jakarta, Indonesia
Email: purnamasariratih834@gmail.com1*,
a.josias@ui.ac.id2
ABSTRACT
This study examines the effectiveness of the Odd-Even policy in Jakarta
from 2017 to 2022, comparing it with similar measures in Beijing from 2013 to
2017. Both megacities face severe traffic congestion due to rapid urbanization,
population growth, and increased vehicle ownership. Jakarta's congestion is
exacerbated by population density, inadequate public transportation, and high
private vehicle ownership, leading to prolonged travel times, air pollution,
and economic losses. Similarly, Beijing struggles with traffic congestion due
to its massive population and rapid economic development, resulting in gridlock,
air pollution, and decreased quality of life. The research aims to understand
the Odd-Even policy's impact on traffic flow, emissions, and public perception
in both cities, using qualitative methods and diverse data sources. It also
identifies obstacles to policy effectiveness, such as enforcement,
infrastructure, and public compliance, offering recommendations for
policymakers and urban planners to improve sustainable transportation and
environmental management. Overall, the study contributes insights into
congestion mitigation in megacities, aiding policymakers in enhancing urban
life quality.
Keywords: Odd-Even
Policy, Traffic, Air Pollution.
INTRODUCTION
The capital has acquired an inherent identity due
to the concurrent rise in population and the usage of both two-wheeled and
four-wheeled vehicles. This problem has had a persistent and significant impact
due to its exacerbation of daily traffic congestion. The main roadways have
become inundated with traffic, particularly during peak hours, resulting in highway
congestion. Consequently, journeys that are supposed to be brief take longer
than anticipated, causing individuals to spend hours in their vehicles merely
to traverse distances that should be covered swiftly. In addition, congestion significantly
increases air pollution, resulting in adverse effects on public health and
economic productivity. Evidence indicates that there is a significant
correlation between the rising number of motorized vehicles and the substantial
growth in exhaust emissions produced by these vehicles. Elevated fuel
consumption and emissions have a detrimental impact on air quality, hence
posing risks to both human health and the environment. In 2015, it was
anticipated that 3.7 million individuals would die prematurely due to poor
outdoor air quality, also known as ambient air pollution, in both urban and
rural regions
The
community's environment can be impacted by exposure to air pollution,
particularly in metropolitan regions that are densely populated and have high
concentrations of emissions. The primary source of air pollution exposure
typically arises from commuting or traveling in urban environments.
Specifically, the presence of micro-transportation utilized in daily activities
makes a noteworthy impact
Conversely, the rise in population density also
exerts pressure on road infrastructure, leading to increased burdens.
Overcrowding on roads has led to an increased risk of accidents and a decrease
in the efficiency of both public and private transportation, despite their
initial capacity to handle a specific number of cars. The escalating population
density in the capital, particularly in Jakarta, has emerged as a pressing
worry due to the ongoing rise in transmigration data. Based on the 2023 data
release, the rate of transmigration to Jakarta exhibits consistent annual
growth
Similarly, various capital cities across the globe
have resorted to implementing odd-even policies to combat the persistent
challenges of traffic congestion and air pollution. The trajectory of
development experienced by Beijing, being the capital of China, significantly
contributes to the proliferation of private vehicles over the years. This
steady increase in vehicular traffic inundates the city streets on a daily basis, exacerbating traffic gridlocks and
exacerbating the already dire air quality. The introduction of the odd-even
system emerges as yet another strategic initiative by
the Beijing municipal government to tackle the escalating traffic congestion
issues that emerged during the Beijing Summer Olympics. As the host city, the
government bears a palpable obligation to proactively address these concerns to
ensure the smooth functioning of the city for both athletes and visitors alike
Beyond traffic congestion, another pressing concern
motivating the adoption of the odd-even policy in Beijing is air pollution.
However, apprehensions persist regarding the efficacy of this policy in
effectively mitigating the persistent air quality challenges facing the city.
The unchecked emissions from motor vehicles continue to take a toll on
Beijing's atmospheric quality, perpetuating a cycle of environmental
degradation
Therefore, this study seeks to address this
deficiency by conducting a comparative analysis of the outcomes of the Odd-Even
policy's implementation in Jakarta under the Jakarta government period of
2017-2022 and a similar policy's implementation in Beijing 2013 - 2017. The
identified research problem is the assessment of the effectiveness of the
Odd-Even policy implementation in Jakarta during the period of 2017-2022
administration, particularly in mitigating traffic congestion issues. The
objective of this study is to conduct a comparative analysis of the outcomes of
adopting the Odd-Even policy in Jakarta and Beijing, while also identifying the
determinants that contribute to the policy's effectiveness or ineffectiveness
in both urban areas. The research focuses on comparing Jakarta and Beijing, two
major cities facing considerable traffic congestion issues. It also examines
the impact of the Odd-Even strategy on traffic and environmental conditions in
these cities.
The study will provide a detailed overview of the
literature review pertaining to urban transportation policy, with a specific
focus on the Odd-Even strategies used in Jakarta and Beijing. Subsequently,
this paper will examine the research methodology employed, encompassing the
approach and analytical tools utilized to compare the efficacy of applying the
Odd-Even policy in the two cities. Subsequently, this article will elucidate
the findings of the research, encompassing a juxtapositional examination between
Jakarta and Beijing and the determinants that exert influence on the efficacy
or inefficacy of the Odd-Even policy in each metropolis. In conclusion, this
essay will provide definitive findings and suggestions for forthcoming
strategies for addressing the issue of traffic congestion in Jakarta and
Beijing.
RESEARCH METHODS
This research is qualitative research that
prioritizes library materials (library research). In this case, the author
tries to produce descriptive and interpretive data. In accordance with Jane
Richie's meaning, research that seeks to present the social world and its
perspectives in terms of concepts, behavior and perceptions is a characteristic
of qualitative research
Specifically, this research uses the synthetic
analysis method to help examine critically, through terms or definitions that
have been put forward previously by figures or thinkers, so that the strengths
and weaknesses of each can be identified and then find a new definition or
meaning that is more precise and complete. The data collection used in this
research is scientific journals published from 2014 to 2023 and news articles
from national and international sources that discuss the impact of the odd-even
policy. So, the combination of these two sources allows researchers to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Through scientific journals,
researchers can access academic views and the latest empirical findings that
are relevant to odd-even policies. Meanwhile, through news articles,
researchers can gain an understanding of the implementation of this policy in
various social contexts.
In the process of presenting data, researchers
apply a synthesis approach, where various information from scientific journals
is compiled and analyzed systematically. Data from these scientific journals
consists of research results, literature reviews, and policy analysis conducted
by leading academics and researchers. Researchers sort through relevant
information and identify general patterns and differences between existing
views and findings. Apart from that, data was also collected through news articles
discussing odd-even policies, both from a national and international
perspective. News articles provide insight into the implementation of odd-even
policies in a broader social and political context. Data from news articles is
used to complement and enrich researchers' understanding of the impact of these
policies on people's daily lives as well as the public's response to these
policies.
After the data was collected, researchers carried
out a holistic and in-depth analysis. Data from scientific journals and news
articles were synthesized to produce a comprehensive understanding of the
implementation of the odd-even policy in Jakarta and Beijing. Researchers
examined various points of view, challenges, opportunities, and the impact of
these policies in overcoming congestion and air pollution in the two cities.
The analysis results obtained from presenting this data are the basis for researchers
to develop a deeper understanding of the odd-even policy. In addition, the data
presented also significantly contributes to the development of theory and
practice in the public and environmental policy field. Thus, the presentation
of data in this research not only provides a comprehensive picture of odd-even
policies but also provides a basis for developing more effective policies in
overcoming the problems of congestion and air pollution in urban areas.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The adoption of the Odd-Even policy in China,
particularly in Beijing, demonstrates a significant dedication from the
government to address two primary challenges encountered by numerous major
cities globally, namely traffic congestion and air pollution. Over the past
three decades, Chinese cities, including Beijing, have seen the adverse effects
of a significant rise in motorized cars on the roads, which may be attributed
to rapid economic growth and urbanization
Beijing's emission reductions are not implemented
without purpose; the city's transportation system is strictly regulated by the
government to reduce the level of pollution caused by motorized vehicles. This
demonstrates the serious efforts of the Beijing government in addressing air
pollution issues that impact the health and quality of life of city residents.
A tightly regulated transportation system serves as the foundation for various
policies aimed at reducing exhaust emissions and improving air quality in the
city. For instance, in October 2013, Beijing launched a work program titled
"Motor Vehicle Emission Pollution Control 2013-2017," which
underscored the importance of utilizing public transportation to conserve
energy and maintain smooth traffic flow
The implementation of the Odd-Even policy in
Beijing has a profound impact on both the degree of traffic congestion and air
pollution, as well as inducing substantial modifications in people's behavior.
Mandates for the utilization of personal automobiles on specific days have
compelled individuals to modify their routines in terms of daily mobility. The majority of Beijing inhabitants have commenced seeking
alternative means of mobility, such as utilizing public transit, cycling, or
walking, in order to overcome the limitations imposed on the usage of private
vehicles. This phenomenon has a significant impact on both individual mobility
and the overall daily travel patterns and transportation habits of society. The
changes in mobility experienced by the community with the Odd-Even system in
Beijing are undoubtedly a crucial part of the necessity for a more sustainable
planning and management process for the city's transportation sector. The
development of efficient public transportation mobility plans continues to be
carried out by the Beijing government for the sake of sustainable living.
Several research studies indicate that the transportation problems experienced
by Beijing can be addressed by implementing various policies that play pivotal
roles in the development and survival of urban society
Beijing's inhabitants' daily travel patterns are
influenced by changes in their routines. The implementation of regulations
limiting the utilization of personal automobiles on specific days has prompted
individuals to meticulously prepare and coordinate their journeys. Many
individuals have started to optimize their travel by utilizing private vehicles
on authorized days, while on alternate days they transition to public
transportation or walking. The transportation network, which is a crucial
component of urban life and serves as a prerequisite for the prosperity of its
residents
In addition, the introduction of the Odd-Even
policy has also altered the social contact patterns of Beijing society. The
imposition of limitations on the utilization of personal automobiles has
diminished the extent of personal mobility in accessing workplaces, educational
institutions, and social hubs. This social transformation highlights the
significance of transportation policies in shaping behavioral patterns and
impacting local community dynamics. Local residents
have also chosen for public transportation or canceled their out-of-town trips
in response to the Odd-Even policy regulations (Yang, 2018). This phenomenon
has had an impact on the way people engage socially, leading to a greater
emphasis on their immediate surroundings and a decrease in interactions that
span across other regions. Consequently, this program has fostered greater
local connections and enhanced unity among urban inhabitants. Similarly, these
changes have also spurred the growth of the bicycle and public transportation
industries in this city, while also fostering innovation in the development of
environmentally friendly transportation infrastructure. So, this naturally also
has implications for the well-being of the populace.
Moreover, the implementation of the odd-even
regulation resulted in a quite significant decrease in air pollution levels.
The data analysis reveals a substantial reduction in the concentrations of
PM2.5 (fine particles) and NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) during the implementation of
this program
Despite the Odd-Even policy's impact on Beijing
society, persistent hurdles and paradoxes continue to plague its
implementation. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that every policy
undeniably entails repercussions and issues that necessitate addressing. An
evident barrier arises from individuals' perceptions and reactions towards
limitations imposed on their own automobiles. These limits can be problematic
and restrict the mobility of individuals, particularly for those accustomed to
unrestricted car usage. A quantitative analysis also indicated that the
policy's impact on vehicle restrictions resulted in rapid motorization, causing
inadequacy in the collection and analysis of transportation data due to
existing budget limitations. Additionally, several studies have explained that
the government-imposed restrictions were not well-received by some commuters,
and some individuals also perceived the inefficiency of these restriction
policies
Furthermore, people from diverse socioeconomic
backgrounds may also encounter challenges. Individuals residing in suburban
regions or lacking sufficient access to public transportation infrastructure
may face more significant challenges in adhering to the Odd-Even guideline.
Obstacles such as extended travel distances, insufficient coverage of public
transportation routes in their area, or increased expenses related to using
alternative transportation might pose significant challenges for them. According
to research findings, a significant number of individuals still hold objections
and are unwilling to pay additional fees for utilizing public transportation,
despite the potential benefit of avoiding traffic congestion (Wang, 2014). It
became evident that these measures were met with resistance from certain
commuters. Some individuals expressed dissatisfaction with the limitations
imposed on their mobility and the inconvenience caused by the restrictions.
This discontent among segments of the population highlighted the need for
policymakers to carefully consider the implications of such policies on the
daily lives and routines of citizens. Moreover, concerns were raised regarding
the overall efficacy of these restriction policies. While they aimed to address
issues such as traffic congestion and air pollution, their effectiveness came
into question. Some individuals perceived the policies as ineffective in
achieving their intended objectives, raising doubts about their long-term
sustainability and impact on the transportation system. This poses a
significant challenge for the Beijing government, which must be promptly
addressed to ensure that people can comfortably utilize public transportation
without feeling burdened by costs.
Concurrently, Jakarta, renowned as a hub for
economic and commercial endeavors, entices a significant influx of individuals
who relocate to the city in pursuit of employment prospects and to enhance
their quality of life
Aside from
internal causes like inadequate infrastructure and shortcomings in urban
planning, external factors such as transmigration and high population density
play a crucial role in the ongoing problem of traffic congestion in Jakarta.
The issue of transmigration, which involves people migrating from other parts
of Indonesia to Jakarta in search of better job prospects and a higher quality
of life, exacerbates the pressure on the city's transportation infrastructure.
The flood of migrants, motivated by the attractiveness of Jakarta's economic
opportunities, worsens the disparity between population growth and the
development of transportation infrastructure, thus heightening traffic
congestion on the city's roads. This will undoubtedly prompt the
majority of individuals, either directly or indirectly, to acquire and
opt for private transportation to conduct their daily routines, thus abstaining
from utilizing public transportation
With
their own vehicles, individuals can tailor their travel schedules to suit their
personal needs and preferences, eliminating the need to adhere to fixed
schedules and routes stipulated by public transportation services. Furthermore,
considerations such as privacy and security weigh heavily on the
decision-making process for many individuals when it comes to utilizing private
transportation. However, the surge in private vehicles is also bound to pose challenges
for Jakarta. Furthermore, the reliance on private transportation perpetuates a
cycle of car-centric urban development, wherein infrastructure investments
prioritize roads and highways over public transit systems and
pedestrian-friendly initiatives. This further marginalizes those who rely on
public transportation and active modes of transportation, exacerbating issues
of social equity and access to mobility.
The
problem of high population density is especially severe in the urban areas of
Jakarta, where a large number of residents puts
pressure on the limited road space and obstructs the growth of transportation
networks. The resulting congestion not only hinders the smooth movement of
vehicles but also presents substantial obstacles for urban transportation and
accessibility. The rise in vehicle volume persists alongside the population
growth in the Jakarta area. Undoubtedly, this will pose a challenge for
Jakarta. Additionally, the restrictions imposed by the Jakarta government have
prompted individuals from the upper middle class to seek alternative methods to
circumvent the odd-even policy. They achieve this by acquiring supplementary
vehicles and requesting distinct license plate numbers for each vehicle.
Consequently, an increasing number of individuals now possess multiple private
cars, with the intention of reducing reliance on public transportation.
However, for those unable to afford an extra vehicle, resorting to falsifying
license plate numbers becomes a common strategy to ensure daily vehicle usage,
despite the awareness that such actions contravene existing regulations
Moreover, the implementation of these strategies may have broader
implications for Jakarta's urban landscape. The rise in the number of private
vehicles due to the odd-even policy restrictions could exacerbate existing
challenges such as traffic congestion and air pollution. With more cars on the
road, traffic flow could become even more sluggish, leading to increased travel
times and frustration for commuters. Furthermore, the increased prevalence of
private vehicles may lead to greater strain on the city's infrastructure,
including roads and parking facilities. Over time, this could necessitate
further investment in transportation infrastructure to accommodate the growing
number of vehicles, potentially diverting resources from other essential services
and projects.
Under the
administration of Jakarta from 2017 to 2022, it adopted the odd-even policy in
Jakarta as a progressive solution to address the issue of traffic bottlenecks
and congestion. In addition to the difficulties encountered in executing the
odd-even policy, Jakarta has also introduced the Jaklingko
program as a prominent measure to mitigate the issues of overcrowding and
pollution. The primary objective of this program was to facilitate the
integration of public transportations in the entire Jakarta area, ensuring its
accessibility to individuals from all strata of society. Later, this system
will connect several transportation access points in Jakarta, where, with one
initial payment, people can use the integrated transportation services offered
in the program
The objective of this measure is to diminish
individuals' reliance on personal automobiles and promote the utilization of
public transportation as a more environmentally friendly option. In addition to
that, Jakarta implemented many initiatives to enhance the quality of Transjakarta bus services. The implementation of more
contemporary bus stations was undertaken to enhance the convenience of public
transportation patrons. Technology has been implemented in Transjakarta
Bus operations, including the utilization of software to monitor bus timetables
and routes in real-time. Furthermore, additional lanes are also being
constructed to expand the coverage of Transjakarta
transportation. The objective is to enhance the travel experience for
individuals utilizing public transit. The Jakarta government (2017-2022) is
also constructing road infrastructure to facilitate the implementation of the Jaklingko initiative. Enhancements were implemented on
bicycle lanes and sidewalks to promote the utilization of non-motorized
transportation and enhance pedestrian safety. This measure aligns with Jakarta
government for the period 2017-2022 objective to establish a city that is more
ecologically conscious and enduring.
Apart from that, city transportation or commonly
referred to as Angkot, serves as another alternative
and is also crucial for the community, alongside Transjakarta
buses, for daily mobility. The use of public transportation in people's lives
has been ongoing for a long time, making it a reliable mode of transportation
due to its easier access and wider accessibility. It can reach remote areas
that are not accessible by Transjakarta buses.
Moreover, the cost is affordable, making it a preferred option for lower-middle-class
individuals
Hence, the surge in Transjakarta
commuters, corresponding to the influx of people migrating to Jakarta, exerts a
substantial influence on the extent of traffic congestion in the metropolis.
The utilization of public transportation by a larger population alleviates
strain on the road infrastructure, but the influx of individuals relocating to
Jakarta tends to amplify the number of vehicles on the road, thereby
exacerbating traffic congestion. The scholarly research undertaken by
Therefore, Beijing serves as a prime illustration
of a nation that has effectively enforced an odd-even policy in densely
populated urban areas. The policies implemented there share similar objectives
with Jakarta, specifically addressing the growing issues of traffic congestion
and air pollution. However, the primary distinction between the two is that
Beijing typically enforces an odd-even policy exclusively during peak traffic
hours. While Jakarta decides to implement this policy throughout the day, specifically
just targeting civilian vehicles, some cities in Beijing adopt a more
comprehensive approach by paying attention to all elements of civil affairs and
government when executing this policy, where both society and government
participate in the established system rules. Furthermore, another distinction
can be found in the realm of policy implementation. Certain cities in Beijing
may impose broader or more precise territorial limitations in comparison to
Jakarta. This phenomenon can be attributed to the expansive urban size and
dense population in many Chinese cities. The positive impact offered by this
system is not only focused on alleviating traffic congestion but also on
addressing other issues. For instance, in Beijing, the Odd-Even system implementation
not only includes restricting private vehicles based on their license plates or
limiting private vehicle ownership but also imposes restrictions and
prohibitions on trucks or vehicles carrying chemicals, mud, or stones for
transportation purposes from traversing the streets of Beijing on certain days
during the program's implementation
In addition, the Chinese government is facilitating
the expansion of public transportation by raising the number of buses from
21,000 to 25,000 and extending the operation hours of the subway
Additionally, differences exist in policy
implementation. Some cities in China may impose broader or more precise
regional restrictions compared to Jakarta. This variation can be attributed to
the vast size and dense population of many Chinese urban areas. Conversely, in
Jakarta, the government's restrictions are limited to specific zones and
primarily focus on reducing the number of private vehicles based on their
license plate numbers. This policy entails two primary provisions: vehicles
with odd-numbered plates are prohibited from entering designated areas or roads
on even dates during certain operational hours, and vice versa
However, it is important to acknowledge that there
are numerous noteworthy commonalities. The primary objective of this second
policy is to mitigate congestion and air pollution, hence positively
influencing urban air quality. These parallels provide a foundation for the
exchange of ideas and knowledge between nations concerning the achievements and
difficulties encountered in the implementation of odd-even policies. When
examining the execution of the odd-even policy in Indonesia, particularly in
Jakarta, numerous notable elements may be observed that can be introduced or
enhanced. Initially, modifying the temporal aspect of policy implementation can
be crucial for achieving success. Indonesia has the ability
to modify the timing of policy implementation by conducting daily
assessments of traffic conditions, ensuring its efficacy at all times.
Furthermore, the utilization of technology can be enhanced to effectively
uphold and implement policies, such as employing surveillance cameras or
automated systems that can promptly and precisely identify infractions. In
addition, public education is crucial to ensuring widespread acceptance and
successful implementation of this strategy. Disseminating unambiguous
information to the public regarding the objectives and advantages of odd-even
policies can foster enhanced comprehension and endorsement.
In addition to affecting air pollution and traffic
congestion, the Odd-Even strategy has a big impact on social welfare and
national security. Through lowering the quantity of motorized vehicles on the
road, this policy obliquely enhances national security. This is also consistent
with research
CONCLUSION
The Odd-Even policy in Beijing, aimed at curbing
traffic congestion and air pollution, has proven effective despite initial
resistance, reducing vehicle emissions by 40% over two years and encouraging a
shift to alternative transportation. Jakarta faces similar challenges,
exacerbated by rapid urbanization and inadequate public transit. Initiatives
like the Jaklingko program and Transjakarta
bus improvements have been made but further action is needed. Both cities must
address societal resistance and logistical hurdles in policy implementation,
with recommendations including flexible timing adjustments and enhanced
enforcement. Continued investment in public transit and urban planning is
essential. These experiences emphasize the importance of proactive policy
interventions in urban transportation, offering Jakarta the opportunity to
emulate Beijing's success and achieve a sustainable urban future through
collaborative efforts.
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